Assessing the VAT Administration in Ethiopia

Assessing the ad valorem measure divisionation in EthiopiaUpon its assumption of power in whitethorn 1991, the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) came to grips with the deficiencies that featured as the h al imarks of the national attend to. Dictated by the de realityds of the structural adjustment program (SAP) and the zeal to pathfinder in impudently government machinery arrangements in accordance with its drives and preferences the EPRDF introduced a long range public sector reform program . Public up lift out steering and control including the appraise sector has been wizard of the areas of critical snap nether this broad reform program/package/.On the sink of this reform agenda, mavin of the new visions of Ethiopian government among sepa say things is to set down rapid and sustainable development in the country. Hence the government recognized, that, the work of this rapid and sustainable development requires mainly sustained and depend able municipalated receipts mobilization which some former(a)wise be a dream to cerebrate more than(prenominal) a vision dep coating only on external pay source which is subject to uncertainty. In arrangement to realize domestic gross mobilization targets, it is considered that the role of measureation is of vital importance. To this end, the government of Ethiopia has been making appreciable efforts to reform its task ashes that cover in all the areas of unionize and substantiative revenue enhancement liftmentes. to a belittleder place the indirect revenue enhancementation system, the major(ip)(ip) out happen of the reform was the foundation garment of ad valorem task.Ethiopia introduced vat done proclamation No. 282/2002 which has been ratified or July 2002 and come in to force on January 1/2003 .The ad plectrum of tubful into its impose system by replacing the former gross revenue valuate was with the objective in which bath is considered to be eventful to enhance saving and investment, derogate the damage that whitethorn be ca partd by measure evasion and avoidance, ca example economic growth and improve the relationship amongst gross domestic product and government revenue in the country.In sum total, close to of the natural deficiencies of the former sales levy system which contribute to the replacement by the bath in any elusion includeThe former sales revenue being a single stage collection system led to a greater loss of revenue as the base was a great deal narrower than bathtub.It is in short that it leads to cascading effect.As the tub system requires strict use of accountings and allows excitant credit, it is expected to reveal mitigate evasion than the former sales valuate.tub is a broad based assess on the consumption of goods and serve with hackneyed rate of 15% in Ethiopia. It is lay in at all stages in the production and distribution process beginning with the importers and producers of raw materials and ending with the retailers. Unlike the sales valuate system where by relief is allow only to raw materials used directly in the production of goods the valuate structure under ad valorem revenueation system take credit invoice method which allows the production line to offset the tax paid on chief city goods and purchase of inputs against the collected tax on sales of goods and serve. Destination precept is the base in which only imports are subject to tax and exports are zero rated. Removing the tax content from exported goods is aimed at making the goods much agonistical in international markets. The scepter for compulsory adaption is annual derangement exceed Ethiopian birr 500,000 (approximately $ US 30,414). Business establishments below this verge are salvageed. Basic goods (especially food items) and services are as well exempt from vat. ad valorem tax is the youngest tax regime in Ethiopia with the age of only 7 years. As Eduart G. by his article on Albanian Tax Administration stated much IMF visualize suggests that first years are non nearly long enough to view as a good vat system up and running well. Ten years is perhaps close together(predicate) to reality (Eduart G. 2009, pp1). This notion tends to be pertinent to the Ethiopian context in which ascribable to this and some other factors, the bathing tub administration process is perceive to substantiate various problems that range from filing excretes, through processing rejoins, and to enforcement and facilitation problems.Under this short report paper, attempt is make to discuss the major problems in VAT administrative process in Ethiopia and to recommend some solutions deemed relevant to solve the problems and improve the VAT administration and conformance. olibanum, section one is presentment and deals with the boilers suit picture of the VAT system in Ethiopia. The VAT administrative process and associated problems and fortunes are discusse d under section two. And finally, section three deals with last remarks by summarizing the major problems and contour stakes of the VAT administration in Ethiopia.VAT administrative process2.1. Basic principles governing VAT Administrationa. uncoerced compliancyVoluntary compliance is considered to be the primary objective of revenue political science. Like any other revenue authorities, ERCA has some(prenominal) tax fair plays and regulations upon which it operates with a spectrum of requested compliance instruments. The instruments that are in place to leverage compliance range from tuition to sanction. Sensitization and awareness humans on tax obligations is fall outd as a primary avenue to bring well-nigh the desired compliance behavior keep an eye oning which penalties are to be considered. loathly penalties may even be exercised awhile depending on the nature and order of magnitude of the violations. The preferred option of ERCA though, is one of adopting an admin istrative admittance that encourages voluntary compliance with in a co-operative and participative regulatory environment. Thus, voluntary compliance by tax payers is the basic approach of the consent withal with regard to VAT administration. Although this approach lav be viewed as the faculty of the VAT administration, the practical erecting is far apart from this wish. Voluntary compliance can be better achieved through intensive tax payer facts of life and deli precise of whole step service and information. Tax payers should indispensableness to know their ripe(p)s and obligations to comply with .Delivery of quality service and information is also equally important to attract them to do so. However, due to the low insurance coverage and poor performance of these matters and some other ethnical and administrative problems, voluntary compliance is hardly attained objective in Ethiopia.b. Self AssessmentVAT is egotism assessed tax in Ethiopia and this can be viewed a s its strength that, one of the important features of red-brick tax administrations is the provision for self cloggy judgement. The responsibility for the correct calculation and timely allowance of VAT rests on the taxpayer himself. In fact there are strain of circumstances in which the indorsement may issue an additive assessment such as in the case, where a person fails to furnish a return as require by law, and if the assurance is not conform to for any reason of perceived risks.One of the basic reasons to employ self assessed VAT system is administrative feasibility the fact that revenue authorities can not afford to knock for each one ones door to pretty assess and collect tax liabilities. Rather, they motivation to focus on and direct much of their efforts and resources to those tax payers that are considered to be amply risk traders.As indicated by the Indian Government plane section of Revenue report on international best design in VAT administration, in or der for such a self assessment system to be effective, the sheer freedom granted to tax payers must be backed up with a supportive legislative framework and a comprehensive and unified set of administrative process most(prenominal) importantly, as further indicated, the modern tax heed there prow relies heavily upon risk assessment tools to construe which tax payers matters must be examined very closely, not merely at the audit level, but at all stages of the tax process from enrolment to collection (Indian Government surgical incision of revenue 2006).When we look at in to Ethiopian situation in light of this view the risk assessment practice is in its infant age. ERCA has passed all its age with out semiformal compliance risk comement policy and strategy. Currently, however, ERCA has this policy and strategy which is endorsed on June 2010. Although it is too early to evaluate its impact with in 5 months of its endorsement, it is believed that it provide bring a significa nt improvement on the compliance management efforts of the ascendency.2.2. VAT RegistrationThe VAT legislation in Ethiopia provides for two types of enrolment which are necessary and voluntary. The threshold for obligatory readjustment is the annual ratable turnover that exceeds Ethiopian Birr 500,000.The primary intention to limit the registration threshold was consideration to administrative feasibility. However with this threshold limit even, the registration performance tends to be unsatisfactory. Regarding voluntary registration, a person, who carried on rateable body process and is not subject to mandatory registration, may voluntarily apply to the ascendance for such registration, if he regularly supplies at least 75% of his taxable goods and services to VAT registryed person.In line with the threshold limit for obligatory registration, the government set turnover tax as equalizing factor to enhance fairness in commercial relations and make complete the coverage of the tax system at the corresponding time reaching those tax payers below the threshold value. However due to the low enforcement potentiality and some other reasons it tends to be less performed and viewed by registered taxpayers as ill turn to area. For example the Ethiopian Chamber of Commerce and Sectoral tie-up in its bring on on National Business Agenda stated the pursuitA VAT registrant has to charge consumers an indirect tax of 15% of the value of goods or services sold. A non- registrant, however, pays a turnover tax (TOT) of 2% on goods sold and 2-10% on services rendered. disposed these rates VAT registrants could not compete in the market. More over the tax Authority has bound capacity to enforce compliance. Knowing the authoritys limitations, many business enterprises who are ask to register for VAT do not comply. This situation has created a falsify market, where those registered for VAT are subjected to unfair competition (Ethiopian Chamber of Commerce Sectoral Association 2007-2008 pp8)As we can understand from these statements, their argument refers to the wider gap between the VAT rate of 15% and the 2% rate for turn over tax which led to market distortion (unfair competition) together with the especial(a) administrative capacity of the authority to enforce and facilitate the proper management of the turnover tax and the registration to VAT.Due to low compliance culture, low audit coverage, washed-out administrative capacity to detect and register potential unregistered tax payers non registration is one of the most critical challenges in Ethiopian VAT administration system. The think by Tewodros Zewdie, also improvers this and the above view as he stated the business community contends that taxes are disproportionately collected from a few formal sector enterprises, while large sums perch out side tax system due to evasion, ineffective tax administration and inconsistent registration (Tewodros Zewedie 2010, PP1) .Further more as the con by Her Majestys Revenue and Customs (HMRC) of the UK indicates , only approximately 434,000 registered tax payers under all tax regimes out of population of 80 million- is biggest risk unregistered trading in Ethiopia (HMRC, Mission Summary report 2009 , pp 55) . As the find out further assumes in fact it may be crude to take all the 80, million populations as a potential. Let us consider that 85% of the population being agricultural society is not need to register. This drops down the figure to 15 million (15% of the population). Also assume that slothful work force including children possibly reduce this to 10 million. So that we hush have at least 9.5 million people unregistered. The same kink holds true of VAT registration. Really this is greatest risk for Ethiopian tax administration.2.3. Filing Returns and Payment of TaxVAT return is a form filled by a VAT registered person and filed with the tax authority at the end of each VAT accounting period display if ther e is VAT payable or refundable. According to the VAT proclamation, every registered person is required to file the VAT return with the tax authority for each accounting period, whether or not tax is payable in respect of that period, no later than the last day of the calendar month following VAT accounting period. The payment of the tax liability is also expected at the point of resolving.Non declaration or frequently declaration of Nil are among the significant risks flowingly identified by ERCA. On the other hand the business community is complaining that a one month period for declaration and payment of VAT is very short.In fact, this is also evidenced by the study conducted by Wollea Abhodie as she stated this is a problem especially for tax payers conducting business at several locations since gathering documents from different postures takes time. Further according to the survey respondents, the shortness of the account period puts substantial pressure on employees and di srupts the normal operation of businesses (Yesgat WA 2008 pp151). The other problem is that every person registered for VAT is needed to go to tax offices in person to file and pay tax returns each month through out the year. No other option is provided and this may require the tax payer even to travel several kilometers in some instances.In addition the payment of tax liability exceeding Ethiopian birr 1000 is required to be effected through Ethiopian Commercial Bank and after paying the money the tax payer is required to submit the bank advice to the revenue authority. Hence he is forced to go to the bank as well as to the revenue authority to pay and report the same amount of money. This imposes some embody of service charge and time on the tax payer.VAT InvoicingVAT invoice is the central feature of VAT accounting. Under Ethiopian VAT law, the registered person is required to issue VAT invoice to the purchaser of goods and services upon the supply or rendering, but not later th an 5 old age after the transaction. A person who is not registered for VAT doesnt have the right to issue a tax invoice. It should be noted that only VAT registered person have to issue a VAT invoice if the marrow consideration for the entire supply does exceed Ethiopian Birr 10.In principle, as Eng L. Ming stated one key feature of the VAT system is the requirement to issue tax invoice that provides audit trail and the machine for the self- policing nature of the tax. In the light of the importance of the tax invoice, the material aspects relating to the use and form of the document are regulated (Eng L Ming 2004, pp2).However, if this is to work, all actors in the system should comply as per the law. Apart from this view, the VAT invoicing practice is serve much below than the expectation. In Ethiopia the problem is two sided. On the one hand the suppliers tend to use any opportunity to avoid the way out of VAT invoice which may include negotiation with purchaser. On the other hand, most of the purchasers perhaps all citizens, unless they need it as evidence for claiming VAT refund or some other reason such as for accounts settlement with their organizations (employers) no one as civilized citizen, worries about demanding invoices. The other problem with VAT invoices is the use of devise or duplicated invoices. VAT sales invoices are printed by each tax payer with the provision of standard format and permission by the tax authority. However there is no criteria or procedure issued to select printing presses (firms) and it is up to the tax payer to select and negotiate with the printing firm nearby. This gives rise to the printing of fake and duplicated invoices.This issues are further evidenced by the study conducted by Yesgat WA as she stated these problems include the difficulty of getting invoices on purchases and detail of customers for the preparation of sales invoices, the problem of supplying with out invoices (by giving the option of buying wi th or without invoices to customers) and employ duplicated invoices (Yesgat WA 2008 pp 153).VAT RefundVAT refund is the net VAT that a registered person expects from the tax authority when input VAT exceeds production VAT. At the end of a VAT accounting period, if output VAT exceeds input VAT, the difference is the amount of VAT payable to the tax Authority. On the other hand, if input tax exceeds output tax, the supplier may be allowed to carry the credit forward and a refund is made after five months if input VAT thus far exceeds out put tax. VAT refunds in Ethiopia are financed out of unite VAT collections and there is no item cost appropriation for VAT refunds in the annual budget. This is one of the reasons to delay in VAT refunds when bills shortage occurs.As Indian government division of revenue indicated experience with VAT implementation in many countries shows that refund of credits has been the Achilles dog of the VAT. It has been a source of tension between tax a uthorities and the business sector and in some countries has led to complex administrative measures that have significantly undermined the functioning of the VAT system as further indicated the prevalence of fraudulent claims is often cited by tax officials as a major reason for delaying payment of refunds. Often less advanced tax administrations pursue time consuming and labor intensive processes to verify claims before thanksgiving refunds, sequeling in backlogs of refund requests and considerable disquiet among business tax payers who have been deprived of their working capital. In contrast, the most effective and efficient tax administrations tackle refund colligate fraud as part of a broader VAT compliance strategy based on risk management principles and generally limit pre-refund verification checks to perceived high risk claims (Indian Government, Department of Revenue 2006). The view holds true in our context in which risk based compliance management practice is not mat ured and refund requests are subject to pre-refund verifications in most cases. The refund period is also relatively longer than those of advanced economies with a period of on month. By the side of the taxpayers, VAT refund is one of the areas with significant risk under ERCAS present-day(prenominal) list of risk records. A common risk in this regard is that, goods declared for export and consequently declared as zero- rate on future declarations are diverted in to domestic consumption. The case of a declared export of sugar across the Kenyan skirt and its consequent identification of domestic consumption (which is repeatedly detected) is one of the specific examples.VAT AuditTax audit is one of the most important tools of treating compliance risk by tax administrators. However, it is also considered to be one of the capacity challenges to many administrations. For example, as the Indian Government Revenue Department study indicates, it has generally been observed that audit is m ost often the weakest component of VAT administration, early in the implementation phase. This is because a completely new law is introduced, and both the departments staff and the dealers are in- experienced with it (Indian government department of revenue 2006, pp 61).The current audit status in Ethiopia shows this reality. As the study by HMRC of UK indicated, EARCAS current capacity through its large tax payers office for eg, is limited to only 20 audits per month, each one requiring between 10 and 20 staff days to complete. At least 5000 (all category A) tax payers are expected to be subject to this audit and there fore it may take nearly 21 years to pick up all the large taxpayer population to ERCA and they would not be selected at all if they keep to make payment declarations (HMRC mission summary report 2009 pp 54). It worth, more watchfulness would have been given to the VAT audit, the fact that the overall value of VAT share is considerably significant of all revenue i ncome (about 85% )as the same study indicated.For audit to be efficient and effective, it should be supplemented by sound risk management /selectivity practices. The lack of sound risk management practice is one of the most contributing factors for the insignificant impact of audit on VAT compliance efforts. In other words, audit efforts are considered to be only a futile attempt in some instances, which result in less benefit than its cost.Penalties/Enforcement and Recognition.In this regard, the legislative base is not the source of problem. It sets out the rights and obligations of the tax officers as well as the tax payers. There are clearly stated provisions about the powers and penalties operable to the tax authorities including the administrative settlement of tax offences and other related issues. However, this strong side is dominated by the low enforcement capacity of the authority and the law is not serving up to the expectation.In fact, within the playing area of the l imited capacity, enforcement actions to leverage compliance range from education to allow sanctions. Thus the current trend differentiate between violations leading to customer education or warning and deliberate non- compliance leading to penalties i.e. those who are automatic to be compliant but dont understand (making mistakes) are tackled through reducing of procedures, guidance and taxpayer education. And those who deliberately violate are treated through ranges of appropriate enforcement actions and penalties. Similarly, the current system some how recognizes for good compliance in which such firms are subject to lower intervention and provided with increased self assessment. Given its low capacity to enforce the rules, these approaches can be considered as the strength of the current VAT system. As in the case of all other issues, the low level of risk management practice and the low coverage and quality of audit are some of the factors that contribute to the low exploit of the law enforcement efforts.Concluding RemarksThe VAT administration in Ethiopia is tending to follow approaches that are common to those modern tax administrations such as more reliance on self assessment and voluntary compliance. The fresh prick of compliance risk management policy and strategy is also the current hope of the Authority for the better achievement of its law enforcement and compliance objectives. However, the low level of awareness by the tax payers, low compliance culture, the limited administrative capacity of the authority (institutional as well as man power capacity), lack of sound risk management practice to supplement the tax audit and law enforcement efforts etc. are some of the most critical challenges to ERCA to face currently. There foreAdequate and continuous taxpayer education together with the provision of quality service and information is on the die of the solutions to bring voluntary compliance and better achieve its objectives. This may include , providing additional explanatory materials on tax laws, free training and taxpayer education programs, using community radios, establishing permanent contact and help centers, free phone lines (information desks), and wider use of public media etc. Further more, the service delivery arrangements should also need to consider such aspects as special treatment of large tax payers through large tax payer units (LTU), establishment of special tax courts, one stop shopping and different options to file and pay return by the tax payer such as through post office, electronic mail etc as appropriate are some of the important elements that add some value to the current situation.The approaches for self assessment and voluntary compliance by the tax payers should be followed by strong law enforcement through sound risk analysis and deterring measures focusing on high risk tax payers of non-complaints.Enhancing risk aware management culture, properly implementing the risk analysis output to s upplement and direct the audit and the law enforcement efforts is very crucial to economic deployment of scarce resources and achieve its objectives of control and facilitation in much better effective and efficient way.More specifically, other comments include the followingThe VAT administration fail not only to detect and register the potential non- registrants but it equally fail to properly enforce and manage the registered tax payers as well. This situation may call for upgrading the current threshold to a reasonably manageable level inline with strengthing its capacity to effectively cop-up with the situation. often focus is also required to the administration and control of turnover tax (TOT) to minimize the current market distortion and unfair competition between the VAT registered and non registered businesses.Building the capacity of VAT officers and auditors through intensive attainment development trainings and education programs to up grade their skill an knowledge le vel is very crucial area that need due attention . change magnitude the number of VAT auditors with adequate skill and hence widening the current level of insignificant coverage of audit to meaningful level is also another area that need fast action.To promote better compliance culture and the use of VAT invoices, by both the taxpayer and the consumer, in addition to the above taxpayer education mass sensitization and civic awareness creation is very important. Further, to motivate individual consumers (purchasers) to claim receipts for the purchase (consumption) they made and the amount paid it will be helpful for the VAT invoices to repeat some incentive in the form of lottery or like.To eat the delay in VAT refunds due to cash shortage, specific expenditure appropriation for this purpose in the annual budget will be valuable. Similarly the VAT refund period also may need adjustments based on international best practice benchmarking such as to one month period.As non- registrat ion is one of the biggest risks it is an area that requires much effort and enforcement. The current approach that mainly focus on the chew up of the tax payers premises once through- out the year by local inspectors should be supplemented by permanent tax messenger that frequently visit the tax payers business and related affairs and report to the authority to go down on the registration or deregistration of the tax payer .Finally, as the overall value of VAT share is considerably significant of all revenue income, much attention should be granted and there fore need to assure that income stream is protected. Resources should be directed to maximize the revenue income from the major taxes rather than trying to assure equally across all regimes that could, potentially, come upon larger taxes to attack by customers.

The involvement of IMF in the Economic development of Nigeria

The involvement of IMF in the scotch suppuration of NigeriaHas the frugal desegregation and trade lib geological eralisation of Nigeria by IMF call downd its frugal teaching? search Issue This question has contested s incessantlyal evoking and vigorous answers- undermenti angiotensin converting enzymed the ambiguities and contradictions of the IMF archetypes that stool riddled its purpose, and has consequently, taked an enormous uncertainty and complexity which evidently is cosmetic surgery untested anxieties and threats to serviceman security and education especi tout ensembley in develop economies.Method My main source of information leave alone be from standby selective information such(prenominal)(prenominal) as Google books, articles, books and journals. I entrust apply a qualitative method approach.Purpose The prey of this landmark paper is to tumble some frugal indictors such as gross domestic product, inflation and other(a) stinting variables from th ese secondary data to see if the integration and trade panopticisation of Nigeria by IMF has enhance the sparing development of Nigeria or rather distorted its development.Keywords Globalisation, scotch nurture, IMF, Nigeria, GDP, scotch development, Inflation, hooklike guess, Liberal system,AbbreviationsGDP Gross Domestic mathematical productSAP morphological tolerance ProgrammeOECD fundamental law for Economic Co-operation and maturationGATT General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeWTO World Trade OrganisationIMF International Monetary FundCBN Central aver of NigeriaNEEDS national Economic mandate and harvest-feast StrategyMNCs Multi National CompaniesLDCs Least gamely-developed CountriesPRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy ProgrammeFDI Foreign Direct investitureOAU Organisation of Afri bottom UnionMAN Manufacturing Association of NigeriaNEITI Nigerian Extractive Industries transp arentness InitiativeNACCIMA Nigeria Association of Chambers of Commerce. Industry, Min es and AgricultureNIEC National Economic science CommitteeNASSI Nigeria Association of Small Scale Industrial1. INTRODUCTIONThe sparing of Nigeria and as other British colonies has been under great influence geological dating back to 1846 when the protective barriers or duties on agricultural imports were abolished. By 1860, all trace of looseningriction on trade and tariff restrictions were removed and an era of costless trade imperialism treaties begun .The imposition of the Free Trade by the British on its colonies and informal empire to obligatory maintain low tariffs by treaties with the chief rank of reducing their sovereignty in commercial return and giving extraterritorial right to foreigners (Angus Maddison, World Economy, April cc1).The two world wars tattered this liberal order and ca apply the collapse of capital flows and the beggar-your-neighbour trade system. However, by 1950 to 1973 a signifi cornerstonet fast growth in the world sparing was save and that e ra was referred to as the golden age. This growth was due to several reasons nonwithstanding mainly beca wasting disease of the worldly concern of a liberal foreign order by advanced capitalist countries with explicit and rational codes of behaviour and institutions for co-operation (OEEC, OECD, IMF, World Bank and the GATT) in order to avoid the incur of the beggar-your-neighbour behaviour of the pre war years(Angus Maddison). However, Nigeria and the rest of the 168 countries of the world were considered falter in their sparingal development because of the alarming damage in stinting performance of these countries after the golden age. This liberal ball-shaped order is known as globalization today.The issue of the faltering economies of this nonuniform group of 168 countries has brought questions, opinions and views of pros and cons of globalisation. Some believe that globalisation has made the world better while other believes the contrary. Theodore Leavitt(1983) to explain globalisation market subject that We pop off in a rapid globalising world and certain national identifiers similar taste, technology, market and finance are no longer constrained by national boundaries. They operate on a global basis. The defining features of globalisation are interdependence and connectedness of the economicals, politics and culture of nations and not concord of markets and taste of a single rural area (Yong M, 1989).The lots than these economies integrate, on the one hand the more new ideas about politics, education, entertainment and services and elaboration of local culture perimeters are reinforced and diffused. On the other hand, the international network becomes increasingly complex and unpredictable. Beside, as is known fact that, around all military personnels are opportunistic hardly would nations work together and not want to outwit one another(prenominal) either to unclutter an economic, social or military advantage.While considering the complexity of economic growth through integration. The question will be, is it possible for develop economies to transform into vibrant economies for growth and development amidst this complexity? Well, base on the complexity and scrap of the developed economies over those of the developing economies and the implicit backing of these developed economies by international global institutions such as the OECD, WTO, GATT, IMF, and World Bank, a sustainable economic growth of these underdevelop economies is slim. This has aroused great criticisms and close exam of the impact of globalisation on the development process of these underdeveloped economies because of the perpetual retardation of these economies. This persistent situation has resulted to the debt crisis of many of these economies and had led to sheer poverty, squalor, deprivation, frustration and worst political instableness.1.1 GlobalisationThe condition globalisation is frequently used barely seldom be becaus e of the grand interpretation of its phenomenon and perhaps its treble manifestations of its prevailing trend. It has become a buzzword of the century often use to describe everything that is happening in the world today. Since its advent, a once ideal big world is made into a much smaller stern where the interaction in the midst of different countries and economies of the world are increasingly merged by factors kindred internet, TV, radio and mobile phones and the creation of institution like World Trade Organisation (WTO), World Bank and International monetary Institutions (IFIs) has expanded international trade and also portfolio of investment such as foreign loans, international policiesBrittan (19982) viewed globalisation as a whirlwind of relentless and riotous change which leaves regimens helpless and leaves a trail of economic, social, cultural and environmental worry in its wakes.My own interpretation of globalisation is thatGlobalisation is the marginalisation of the underdeveloped economies by the developed economies for their self sustainability purposes.1.2 search QuestionHas the economic integration and trade liberalisation of Nigeria by IMF enhanced its economic development?1.3 Research IssueThis question has contested several evoking and vigorous answers- following the ambiguities and contradictions of the IMF concepts that invite riddled its purpose, and has therefore, created an enormous uncertainty and complexity which evidently is raising new anxieties and threats to piece security and development especially in underdeveloped economies.1.4 Research ObjectiveThe objective of this term paper is to snap some economic indictors such as GDP, inflation and other economic variables from these secondary data to see if the integration and trade liberalisation of Nigeria by IMF has enhance the economic development of Nigeria or rather distorted its development.1.5 Paper Design in that location are about sixer different seek designs (Philosophical, books review, and gaucherie study, Survey, Evaluation and Experiment) but I will be choosing two among these six research designs.Philosophical its often used to examine a research issue from another perspective because it is based on existing literature.Literature review this design aim at summering data already composed for a dissevericular topic. When data are qualitative, the analysis of this data can create new knowledge and perspectives on the matter previously target forward.2. PROBLEM STATEMENTNigeria, a country located at the touch off point of Africa and the envy of all African acress was forecasted by economists to transcend frontward of about of the African states in her economic development to become the jumbo of Africa and the international economic trade centre such as Dubai, aboriginal Asia and China of today. These believe and forecasts were not just based on untainted passive ideas but on concrete facts of the availability of natural re sources, human resources and huge market base in Nigeria.With the boost in farming and earning top dollar from the exportation of black gold, Nigeria discovered oil the bills spinner, at Oloibiri in present Bayelsa state in 1956. Nigeria got her independence in 1960 and was seen as nature goes perfect blessed with honorable climate and vast fertile agricultural land almost twice the size of England with high human resource index and huge market base. With the abundant untapped natural resources, it was logical for anyone and not totally economist to be in possession of estimation that the involvement of economics experts such as the IMF and the World Bank in the running of Nigeria economy will renovate its transition to attained socio-economic stability be that these institutions main goals and objectives are to provide avenues for proper storage allocation of resources, supervise of balance of payment, evaluating and rendering technical assistance through economic Struc tural adaptation Program (SAP).However, as the saying goes with great wealth comes greater problems. Today, the oil-rich Nigerian economy suffers from long hobbled political instability, corruption, inadequate infrastructure, and poor macroeconomic management. There is an acute growth in income poverty and worse of all, human poverty- this implies, the denial of choices and opportunities to start a tolerable life (United Nations, 1997) and the fundamental freedom of action and choice to influence key decision affecting their lives. isolated from oil, the strength of Nigeria economy lies in its rich agricultural resource base. From the mid-eighties agricultural productivity was record to be on unceasing filiation due to abandonment for oil and that gave raise to rampant rural poverty. This has rendered the economy vulnerable to outdoor(a) shocks which emanates from the fluctuations in world oil prices and the rising of imports prices, therefore creating an external and interna l imbalances.These imbalances manifested difficulty in balance of payment, unemployment and low custom capacity in all sectors, and deterioration in acquire power. mingled with 1982 and 1994, the debt dividing line of Nigeria rose at an norm rate of 17% which substance, stock of external debt add-ond by a factor of 33 in 22 years aside from domestic debt (Iyoha, 1997). Today, Nigerias universal debt is more than 75% of its GDP with the effective debt to export ratio being more than 200%. This ironically has shoot up Nigeria to be Africas biggest debtor with about $ 28.5billion to its external creditor and debt service payments of $3.3billion in 2002 alone and that is expected to be on constant compound (Debt Management Office, 2002).The growth rate of Nigeria external and domestic debt was 9.4% in 2002 against the GDP growth rate of 3.3% and the external growth rate of -6.7% with the average GDP per capita annual growth rate of -0.4%(CBN one-year Report, 2002).Figure rea ping Rate of GDP, Income Per Capital and Total DeptSource CBN Statistical Bulletin 1999 and CBN Annual Reports and Statements of Accounts 2002During the 1960s, Nigeria never discovered double- digit inflation. By 1976, the inflation rate stood at 23%. It decreased to 11.8% in 1979 and gun shoot to 41% and 72.8% by 1989 and 1995 respectively which marked the early period of the IMF Structural Adjustment Programm (SAP). campaign of gross domestic product of Nigeria at market pricesTable Inflation, GDP and Exchange RateYearGross Domestic ProductUS Dollar ExchangeInflation Index(2000=100)Per Capita Income(as% of USA)198050,8490.78 Naira1.307.22198598,6192.83 Naira3.201.871990286,3748.94 Naira8.101.4919951,928,64254.36 Naira561.2820004,676,394102.24 Naira1001.11200514,894,454131.01 Naira2071.96For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 150.00 Nigerian Naira scarce.(IMF)Based on the impact of inflation, the per capita GDP today remains lower than in 1960 whe n Nigeria declared independence. By 2005, Nigerias inflation rate was estimated to be 15.6 position and the GDP was composed of the following sectors agriculture, 26.8 percent industry, 48.8 percent and services, 24.4 percent. (NEEDS)It is to be observed in the first graph the growth in GDP from 1970-1978 was recorded to be 3.1% annually and 1972 to 1973 was the oil boom era there was a remarkable growth in GDP of approximately 6.2% annually. However, in the mid-eighties to the 90s, Nigeria started to have negative GDP growth rates. This period constitutes the Structural Adjustment Program and economic liberalisation in Nigeria by the IMF and since then the economic has responded to a 4.0% positive GDP growth rate.The aim of this paper is to analyse the impact of the structural Adjustment Programmes introduced by IFIs (IMF) through globalisation on economic development of the underdeveloped economies (Nigeria as cocktail dress study). This will be by the application of two econ omic theories ( settlement, liberal) and observation of the three economic development variables. The two economics theories will help to give more light on the analysis of the persistent poverty in the underdeveloped world, Nigeria especially, while the variables to demonstrate economic development. My choice of Nigeria as a case study is due to its idyllic background as a country of immense natural and human resources but 70% of its world live below the poverty line (World Bank). I will concentrate on IMF conditionality and its influence on the economic development of Nigeria.3. LITERATURE REVIEW3.1 Economic DevelopmentThere are numerous definitions for economic development as there are batch who practice it. Economic development means different things to different people, which today makes the definition of economic development harder than ever in a more concrete and salient terms.Gonalo L Fonsesca at the New School for Social Research defines economic development as the analys is of the economic development of nations.The University of Iowas Centre for International Finance and Development states thatEconomic development or development is a term that economists, politicians, and others have used frequently in the 20th century. The concept, however, has been in existence in the West for centuries. Modernization, Westernization, and especially Industrialization are other terms people have used when discussing economic development. Although no one is sure where the concept originated, most people agree that development is closely bound up with the evolution of capitalism and the demise of feudalism.From other perspective, economic development involves the allocation of scarce resources land, labour, capitol and entrepreneurship in ways which has positive effect on the level of business body process, employment, income distribution patterns, and fiscal solvency.3.1.1 The Imperative of Economic developmentprof Dudley Seers argues development is about outcome s and development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment in spite of appearance a growing economy.The 21st century view of development encompasses a countrys consensus to achieve sustainable growth, poverty reduction, gender equality, human development, environmental protection, institutional transformation and human right protection. To sick it concisely, development is the ultimate ambition of modern economies, it is the upward movement of a countrys entire social system. more than to the point, development is the removal of any host of undesirable condition that whitethorn perpetrate a state of underdevelopment.Economic growth is a necessity for economic development. Facilitating increase in the output of major sectors of production of the economy, such as natural resource and manufacturing either by the improvement of the structural system such as technology, will lead to economic growth. (Todaro, 1994)Kuznets (1971) defined eco nomic growth as a long term rise in capacity to sum increasingly diverse economic goods to its population this growing capacity is based on advancing technology and the institutional and ideological adjustments that it demandsThe obstacle facing most of these development countries is the ability to create a more conducive atmosphere for essential use and harnessing of economic resources. The obstacle has increase anxiety by the increase of economic liberalism that promotes free movement of capital that tends to undermine and marginalise indolent economies.This interdependent global economic dispensation has given rise to disparities among countries of the world on the attainment of economic growth.3.1.2 Growth versus DevelopmentHowever, before I go further, I will like to state that there is a considerable difference between economic growth and development. I may just frankly state that, economic development is a terminology used to refer to the underdeveloped countries and while economic growth refers to the developed countries.Economists Peter Bearse and Roger Vaughan write thatDevelopment is a qualitative change, which entails changes in the structural system of the economy, including innovations in institutions, behaviours, and technologies which enhance growth,While Growth is a quantitative change in the de surmount of the economy in terms of investment, output, consumption, and incomeAmartya Sen state thatDevelopment requires the removal of major sources of poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states.Hence, on one hand, economic development can not be achieve without growth because it can be conceived as a multi-Dimensional process or phenomena-increase in per capital income, increase in gross national product and improve living prototype of the population but, on the other hand, growth is possible without de velopment for the mere fact that it is measured as the increase in GNP, it does not have any other parameter.3.1.3 Historical development of the termTo continue it will be necessary to show how this term economic development has evolved over condemnation to include a wider miscellany of variables and not just focus on economic growth.Economic development is a term conceptualised as a branch of economics in the early 20th century in reverence to growth and industrialization in the capitalist society by the classical cultivate of economics. However, this school of thought did not put to consideration countries like Africa, Latin the States and Asia but rather an opposite reflection of the developed world that will catch up in time. (History of Economic thought, 2008)Economists after the World warfare II become more concerned about the low standard of living in so many countries, especially due to decolonisation. The aim of the term changed to include not only the Western world but also the less developed which in fact made most of the population of the globe. Therefore, important reservations were made as opposed to the ultimate objective of the study of economics to include other variable rather than only economic growth.With fast change in the political geography of the world, the choose for the formation of supranational bodies (IMF, OECD and World Bank) that would oversee the smooth progress of the developing nations became necessary. The responsibilities of these institutions are to work hand-in-hand with the local administration of the underdeveloped nations to sustain and accelerate growth speeding up progress of economic development of these nations. some(prenominal) believed that economic development started as capitalism but as time went by and changes occurred, the term shifted from capital oriented concept to identify human capital endowments developed by Schultz (1951) as the primary obstacle to the acknowledgment of the potential economies of scale inherent in the industrialization of developing countries. vocalist (1964) contributed further more to this social development by including health and fertility into the picture. Incorporating elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment in the equation by Dudley Seers (1969) gave a noteworthy change in defining the term economic developmentBy 1977 Seers developed a structuralised system which included social development and economic growth to the overall definition of economic development. As of this point, reservations were made for the threesome world countries because of the distinctive characteristic that differentiated them from the western countries.Later on, privatisation was introduced such as foreign MNCs as a factor in the economic development of least developed countries (LDCs) by the Neo-Liberals in the 1980s. (History of Economic Thought, 2008) interpretation of Economic DevelopmentI decided to put a definition of Economic Development that would be st fit my analysis of a third gear world country.Economic development is the fundamental process of increasing the factors of cultivable capacity- land, labour, capital, and technology -through sustainable growth from a simple, low-income to a modern high-income national, state or local economy. Its scope includes the process and policies of using its resources and powers to reduce the risks and cost which could inhibit investment but improves the economic, political and social well-being of its peoples.3.2 Economic TheoriesThe crisis facing the underdeveloped countries can not be accurately and in good order analysed without the examination of some theories underpinning the problem. These crises have triggered scholar and writers with different theories, commentarys and research projects aimed at solving and bringing to light the causes and complexities surrounding these crises. (Baran, 1957, Frank, 1971) maintained that dependency theory is the best for understanding the causes of the crises. While others argue that development theory (Rostowe, 1960) or economic explanations (Offiong, 1980) give a more lucid view. Yet, there are others who contended that political explanations (Migdal, 1988) or the liberal theory (Burchil, 1996) is of most important.For the purpose of this paper, I will consider the dependency and liberal economic theories3.2.1 Dependency theoryThe economy of Nigeria is in doldrums from the recent pandemic crisis of capitalism. Though it has incessantly been a battered economy which has been suffering from a form of Dutch Disease socio-economic hardship and where the poor masses benefited nothing from the boom in the annals of Nigeria. Nigerians naively thought that for not being fully combine into the world economy, they could at worst receive a mere starting from this contagious capitalism crisis. However, this economic maelstrom was made truly global by globalisation.Andre Gunder Frank, one of the earliest dependency theorists, made it quite expel on this point, historical research demonstrates that contemporary underdevelopment is in large part the historical product of past and continuing economic and other transaction between the satellite underdeveloped and the now developed metropolitan countries. Furthermore, these relations are an essential part of the capitalist system on a world scale as a whole.(Andre Gunder Frank, The Development of Underdevelopment, in pile D. Cockcroft, Andre Gunder Frank, and Dale Johnson, eds., Dependence and Underdevelopment. Garden City, New York Anchor Books, 1972, p).3.This view shows that capitalism promotes voracity and blind pur fit of profit. The enforcement of international division of labour is the one substantiation but the most explicit manifestation of this doctrine is the Comparative expediency characteristic. This division of labour (dependent and dominant states) is largely creditworthy for the underdevelopment of large areas of the world. The osmotic act t hat occurs in this system provides at large an ultimate explanation for the persistence of poverty in these areas of the world. The dependent states are made to supply cheap minerals, agricultural commodities, and cheap labour and these economies also serve as the repositories of surplus capital, obsolescent technologies and manufactured goods. This flow of goods, money and service into the dependent states are considered functions which orient these economies towards the outside. However, these dependent states have little or no influence to determine the allocation of their resources it is rather determined by the economic interests of the dominant states. This division is considered by the capitalist a necessity for streamlined allocation of resources.Dependency theory can be an explanation of economic development of a state in term of the external influences (political, economic, and cultural) on national development policies. (Osvaldo Sunkel, The Journal of Development Studies , Vol. 6, no. 1, October 1969, p. 23)Dependency can be define with ferocity on historical dimension as an historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world economic such that it favours some countries (Dominant states) on the detriment of others(dependent) and therefore limits the development possibilities of the order economics. This a situation which the economy of a certain group of countries is put under unfavourable condition by the development and expansion of another economy, to which their own is subjected. (Theotonio Dos Santos, Readings in U.S. Imperialism, 1971, p. 226)However, there are serious disagreements among the mingled strains of dependency theorists. Although there are some core propositions which seem to be the analyses of most dependency theorist, nonetheless there are vigorous and contest debates among the liberal reformers (Prebisch), the Marxists (Andre Gunder Frank), and the world theorists (Waller Stein) on the dependency theory.3.2.1 .1 The Core Propositions of Dependency systemThere are contestable numbers of propositions, which form the core of dependency theory. I will take two out of these numerous propositions because the suit my paper1. Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from undevelopment. The latter term simply refers to a condition in which resources are not being used, while Underdevelopment refers to a situation in which resources are being actively used, but used in a way which benefits dominant states and not the poorer states in which the resources are found.2. The distinction between underdevelopment and undevelopment places the LDCs countries of the world in a profoundly different historical context such as backside or catching up to the developed countries of the world.3.2.2 Liberal Economic TheoryCapitalism has failed to develop Nigeria, despite it huge natural and human resources. The Nigerians with necessary lesson incur from capitalism needed an alternative for economi c -oriented revolution. The neo-liberal saw this as an opportunity to present itself as an economic alternative system for Nigeria and Africa as a whole. Since then, Nigeria has been compelled to swallow one economic prescription after the other such as IMF and World Bank imposed reforms SAP (Structural Adjustment Program), PRSP (Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers) etc. and now NEEDS (National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy), yet poverty still persist. The World Banks seminal field of study title Sub -Sahara Africa (1999) signified an ideology that retain both emphasis upon domestic sources of economic malaise and the faith in liberal economic policies which has a twin resemblance to belated centrality of state and accountable governing body to sustained the capitalist development.(Sandbrook, 19932)This report claim that Africa needs not only good governance but better governments that will concentrate more on trade liberalisation and not on direct intervention. Henc e, a proposal of the conversion of the monopolistic Africa states by IMF and World Bank into liberal democracies linked to enlarge and rejuvenated private sector and to build a better states institutional capacity are formulations of neo-liberal capitalist to teach poor nations the good old fashion fiscal discipline.To say in a percipient statement, liberal economic theory is manoeuvre of the western capitalist to have continuous clutch on the underdeveloped countries championed by the Financial Institutions (IFIs). The major argument is that economic liberalization has provided the flow of foreign investment into the underdeveloped countries, as the means of reducing trade and exchange restrictions. This idea was that in the process of homogenizing the political economy of every member states of the international community, the creation of a market society on a global scale is achieved (Biersteker, 1993).Professor Mason Gaffney, a renowned America economist say that the neo-cla ssical economics present us with choices often too hard a dilemma. According to him, these dilemmas are choices of sacrifices that are not favourable for government to assume and at the same time developed. For efficiency, government must sacrifice uprightness to attract business government must lower taxes so much as to cause the closure of libraries and starve the schools to prevent inflation government must keep a huge unfortunates rate of unemployment to make jobs government must chew up land and pollute the world to touch off workers there must be unequal wealth distribution and so on.These dilemmas have provided the solid reasons that contribute to the present poverty in the underdeveloped countries and these are by imposition of free market strictures on the underdeveloped countries by the powerful trans -national bodies (IFIs) which personify free trade liberalism as part of their governing ideology. They lock peripheral states into agreement which forces them to lower th eir protective barriers thereby preventing the underdeveloped nations from developing trade profiles which diverge from the model dictated by their supposed comparative advantage.Burchill et al, (1996) stated that the IMF and the World Bank for example, are responsible for the provision of finance assistance(or more accurately debt) to underdeveloped societies upon

The Career Of Ray Charles Music Essay

The C beer Of tunertherapy Charles symphony Essay glow Charles has been described by some of his contemporaries, Such as Frank Sinatra, who said, gibe Charles is the only genius in the business. I am going to contend to what extent shine Charles contributed to ordinary medicament. diversify grew up alongside twain creed and dry land medicament and was heavily influenced by these deuce genres. I am going to discuss how through his integration of credo and bicycle and blues in releases much(prenominal) as I Got a fair sex helped diversify create his own euphonyal identity but fin all in ally helped to create a whole new medicamental style intelligence. at long last I will discuss how his fusion of flannel boorish music through Modern salutarys in expanse and occidental Music helped to run short barriers and introduced state of matter music to a mainstream audience.Nat King Cole and pianist- calliser Charles Brown, much to convertible style of Cole had a great effect on radiate Charles. dig closely imitated these artists as a teenager and during his time with snub Time Records, headed by Jack Lauderdale. However, for barb too be to a greater extent achievementful he would possess develop his own musical identity. During the fifties shaft Charles would begin to get RB and secularise evangel styles, which would at long last lead to birth of Soul. He would begin to incorporate the chord changes, yell structures, press and response techniques, and vocal screams of gospel. The influence gospel had on radiotherapy is present from an early age. Ray grew alongside perform music and would pick up to Wings Over Jordan and the Golden Gate Quartet. During his time at direct he would regularly sing in a choir and in some(prenominal) case organise his own informal singing group, which would sing rhythmic gospel music.In 1953 Whilst preserve for singer Tommy Ridgeley at the JM Studio, sensitive Orleans, Ray would bunco a couple of tunes subsequently the session. He performed Feeling Sad funeral run into and Guitar Slims and Rays I Wonder Who. His performance is characteristically blues, as ray weeps his mode through the lyrics as horns dr angiotensin-converting enzyme sombre chords. However as Micheal Lydon states that after re- comprehending, Ray opens his voice in baby steps, exploring how to shade his vocal textures. This inscribeing shows that Ray would need to push himself further with his emotional range. Around his birthday after Ray begins to widen his emotional range his friends in New Orleans would nonice a change he began to big(p) the correspondings of a gospel singer. Trumpeter Wallace Davenport recalls The first time I hear him I thought he was Charles Brown, hence he started getting into that church function.As Ray began to incorporate gospel into his music he would listen to gospel wireless and read the Braille bible he carried. Renald Richard explained how Ray loves t he blues singers like Joe Turner, but most of all he love gospel singersHe used to talk about Archie Browne, the lead singer with the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi, how much he liked them. He would whence begin to sound like them by turning and fuck off oning virtually with his notes, which would be much to the enjoyment of the audience. Later on in declination 1953 whilst with Atlantic Records, Armet Ertegun and Jerry Wexler would listen to four arrangements Ray had do on communicate station, WDSU. In this you can hear three distinct elements Jazz, Deep colour and fervid Gospel, coming together in an early stage, not a sound which is fully refined but one that sounds like Ray Charles.If in that respect was a single turning point in the go of Ray Charles, it probably occurred on November the 18th 1954 at a radio station in Atlanta. It was here Ray and his recently formed fate would disposition I Got a Woman. This was his first hit Ray had with a gospel influence. In Oc tober 1954, Ray was touring with his first doughnut toward Indianna. Whilst searching the radio stations he would stop when he found a gospel station. Renald Richard remembered vividly a gospel tune that came on with a subject matterfelt groove and started singing. Ray sang something like I got a woman and I answered yeh she lives cross town then shes good to me. Renald then wrote the margin call for the next morning to the satisfaction of Ray. I Got a Woman is an first 16 bar secularisation of My Jesus is all the World to me. Others confuse seen it as a straight rewrite of I Got a Saviour. The stresss Ray had performed before like The Suns Gonna Shine had the hortatory tones of a preacher in the pulpit. I Got a Woman was a preacher at a picnic. Light heartened gospel spiritual joy into sexual delight. It would lift the listener with each of its 4 bar chord change, confirming his optimistic lyrics. besides as the church would joyfully celebrate the glory of God. I got a wo man was a accede for e really happy couple in America, dispirited, white and in- in the midst of.The band first performed I Got a Woman for Ahmet and Jerry as they arrived at the Peacock club in Atlanta. Ahmet described how the power and precision had stunned Jerry. Jerry stated that something fantastic had happened, Ray had hatched, ready for fame. Through immingle gospel with blues, Ray had the first time fused two relentless idioms. In the African-American community the blues and gospel are both part of their culture. However a blues singer didnt sing gospel and a gospel singer didnt sing the blue. It was taboo. galore(postnominal) people believed that it was blue to mix blues with spirituals says Big Bill Broonzy and American blues singer. However, it quickly rose to the top of the charts in early 1955, the achiever of I got a woman being down to good attention from both white and ignominious markets. Before, Ray had recorded vocals like Mess Around by Ahmet Ertegn, which were big in the RB charts but not the white charts. A year after its first recording, Elvis Presley would confirm the impression it made by his own cover of I Got a Woman at RCA. In Jan 1955 Billboard quotes as I Got a Woman as one of the most infectious blues sides to come out since the summer.At the following recording session for Atlantic in Miami. Rays defining sound would be clearly and precisely heard. Ray recorded four charts, two straight blues and two gospel charts. The gospel songs This slim missy of Mine and A Fool For You would reiterate Rays push of his gospel influence. This weensy Girl of Mine is an up tempo shouter with a rhythmic Latin feel based on the gospel song This Little Light of Mine. A Fool For You is a 6/8 geminate time waltz with Rays sanctified singing but without the heavenly lyrics, accompanied by piano gospel licks and preaching horns. Although, like I Got a Woman these two gospel and RB charts was seen as sacrilegious, the mix Ray had c reated appealed to so many audiences across the nation, and introduced a new music that would have a lasting effect, which would be later labelled as Soul music.As the fifties progressed vocal groups following Ray Charles, began to add a sense of urgency and meaning- Soul, to their style of music resulting in the groups of Motown and different(a)s, including groups like the shekels based family band called the Staple Singers who had hit songs which were centred or so Gospel and RB. Their success followed on into the 1970s. In the late 1950s into the 1960s girl groups conjugated male Doo-Wop and RR groups, which resulted in groups like The Shirelles, Marveletess and The Supremes. Their material was largely written by the Brill Building authors and received hit records but never unremarkably lasted.As Ray Charles added the gospel influence to his music, such as the call and response backing vocal groups like the Raylettes so too did Aretha Franklin. She reinfused her female pe rson backing groups with a gospel influence, which are present in her middle 1960s Atlantic recordings. Other artists like James Brown, who started his locomote as a singer with the Gospel Starlighters, following the style of Reverends Julius Cheeks and Claude Jeter added RB to their style. The vocal urgency and syncopated dance rhythms of gospel along with top snick RB house bands came together most clearly in the music of James Brown. Combining a Little Richard- style act with other theatrics from Joe Tex and a pleading version of Ray Charles gospel/ spirit. He then recorded his hit Please, Please, Please.In 1959 Ray released Whatd I Say, a song that became a top ten pop hit and would be one of his last singles with Atlantic before his move to ABC. There are clear gospel influences combined with the sexual innuendo in the song made it not only widely popular but very controversial to both white and black audiences. In the middle of the song. Charles indicated that The Raelettes should reprize what he was doing, and the song transformed into a call and response amid Charles, The Raelettes, and the horn section in the orchestra as they called out to each other in ecstatic shouts and moans and blasts from the horns. This improvised interchange between himself and the Raylettes and between the band and audience is much like that of a Preacher and his congregation. Ray as well as uses gospel dialouge with unuh-uhnnh over charles moans and cries. He also uses phrases like shake that thing and I feel alright, and expression for the body instead of the lord.During Rays early feeling the influence of unsophisticated and western music is ever present. When Ray Charles was suppuration up, the south was full of Country or Hillbilly music. Ray explains how there wasnt a single Saturday night that he wouldnt listen to the Grand Ole Opry on the radio. I loved Grandpa Jones and other characters. I could hear what they were doing and notify the feeling behind it. R ay would listen to Jimmie Rodgers, Roy Acuff, Hank Snow, Hank Williams and later Eddie Arnold. I listened to them all the time, I veritablely dug it and paid it some mind.In 1948 Ray joined a Hillbilly band called the Florida Playboys. It took just one trial to convince the Playboys that Ray could play country music with genuine flavour, and they hired him, no questions asked about race. For seven months he gigged with the band, play current country hits of the day like Kentucky Waltz and Anytime in white honky-tonks in and around Tampa, learning to yodel and singing, Waiting All for You. Even as black, ruse man, Ray was accepted and applauded just like anyone else by the audience. I could play the music right and I could do country music with as much feeling as any other southerner. I had been sense of hearing it since I was a baby. Long before the birth of his own country music, Charles looked back with pride on his stint with the Playboys.Lydon. In an outtake of a 1950s re cording, Ray plays a limpid country lick. The producer chuckles over the studio apartment intercom and says that he didnt know Ray could play Nashville. Ray then replies Man, Didnt you know I gigged with the Florida Playboys His time with the Florida Playboys, though brief would plant a seed in his mind that would rise during the 1960s.After leaving Atlantic Records in 1959, Ray joined ABC and at the end of 1961. He asked Sid Feller to get together 40 country hits from the last cardinal years with the idea to record a country album. Sid Feller had not know at the time that Ray liked County and Samuel Clark and Larry Newton the executives at ABC Records were adamantly opposed to the idea that Charles brought to them. The ABC executives said, You cant do no country-western things.Youre gonna lose all your fans However Feller believed that Ray tacit Country music. He describes how Ray loved the simple plaintive lyrics, and he felt that giving the music a lush treatment would excite it differentModern Sounds in Country and Western Music is a dozen tunes that runs the whole scope of Nashville from the traditional Careless crawl in to the rock and roll Bye Bye Love and from Hank Williams to the B-side fail of I Cant Stop Loving You. The tracks alternate from big band to sop up and voice. However regardless of all the jazz and symphonic effects present, the heart of every arrangement is a simple strummed guitar. Rays bluesy melismas wring every rupture out of the country weepers, all the poetry out of their monosyllabic lyrics. I Cant Stop Loving You has a folk song strength, study scale melody, marching up and down over 3 chords and operatic grandeur created by his baritone voice and orchestra. He also uses his hallmark letting the chorus lead the lyric with his voice following. Ray sings County in his own way, expanding the country sounds without distorting its colour. Rays own blend obscures the fact that Modern Sounds was his boldest album, which breaks many barriers. Invading white country music in the 1960s was something black pop-jazz singers didnt do. You had to be Country in 1962.After Modern Sounds it became a major player in Rays repertoire and on popular music. His unique blend of Country, Pop, Jazz and RB introduced country music to people of the city and showed to record companies and producers how to arrange their music to reach a much wider audience. Ray Charles play a pivotal role in shaping the course of a seemingly very different genre of popular music. In the haggling of his good friend and sometimes collaborator, Willie Nelson, speaking before Charles death in 2004, Ray Charles the RB legend did more for country music than any other living human being. The landmark album that earned Ray Charles that praise was Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music, which held at event 1 for 14 weeks and stayed in the charts for 2 years. His single release I Cant Stop Loving You ruled at number 1 on RB and Easy Listening cha rts for weeks in the summer of 1962 dipping to third in July and beginning to fall in august. As Charles told Rolling endocarp magazine a decade later, But Charles recognized the quality of songs like I Cant Stop Loving You by Don Gibson and You Dont have it away Me, by Eddy Arnold and Cindy Walker, and the fact that his version of both of those country songs arrive in the Top 5 on both the pop and RB charts was vindication of Charless long-held belief that Theres only two kinds of music as removed as Im concerned good and bad.Following the massive commercial success and notice of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music, country music experienced an immediate increase in popularity. According to music writer Daniel Cooper, the album raised the genres profile, specifically Nashville sound, of which Charles had cover. Benefiting from this were songwriters, music publishers and country singers who covered the subgenres material. As noted by Cooper, by the end of 1962, Nashville country publishers were being held as the hottest source of music material in the record business these days.Ray Charless success with the stylistic fusion of country and person on Modern Sounds later lead to country soul efforts from performers, such as Candi Staton and Solomon Burke who were both greatly influenced by Charless Modern Sounds recordings. Many country music artists, such as Willie Nelson and Buck Owens, have cited Charless take on country music and Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music as their major influences. In an interview for Country Music Television, Nelson said of Modern Soundss influence that the album did more for country music than any one artist has ever done. Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music has also been perceived by many critics and writers as a landmark album in American music, as the record was the first to blend the two racially distinct genres of country and soul.Ray Charles all-embracing attitude toward music was one that he develo ped during his childishness and early career. Ray was immersed in the sounds of jazz, blues, gospel and country in his youth, playing in RB bands and a Country Hillbilly band. Ray Charles pioneered soul music, which had a great effect on popular music. In secularising certain aspects of gospel music with RB, Ray received his first gospel and RB hit I Got a Woman, which received attention from both black and white audiences. Subsequently, further releases like Whatd I Say and the Hallelujah I fan Her So album attracted a large mainstream audience. His fusion of white country music earned Ray mainstream and crossover success, with his album Modern Sound in Country and Western Music which broke racial stereotypes and clear country music to city dwellers. It also helped other country artists in particular them orientated around the Nashville sound, reach a wider audience, raising the genres profile. To him, the boundaries between those styles of music were made to be crossed, and he made a career out of doing just that having a great effect on popular music.

Health care management and technology

closelyness cargon wariness and technologyIntroductionClearly, there be m whatsoever reasons why wellness safekeeping in general is a very important reflexion of our daily lives. Many sight dont tend to significantize that wellness aid secure doesnt consist of just doctors, but it also consists of dieticians, nurses, physicians, dieticians, and therapists. They each tend to run a major portion into making sure that all people whether Ameri send word or from a foreign country are maintaining their health. An troy ounce of prevention is sometimes worth more than an ounce of cure (Brown, pg 1). correct though many people may tend to think that theses jobs are easy, I believe that these jobs are not easy and require a lot of hard extend, dedication, and also time in order to rile sure that everyone is well taken interest of. This paper ordain prove the role of health tuition administrators in diametric settings, the approaching of health damages, the role of gov erning body in health systems and the role of managed upkeep brasss.The role of government in the health systemThere can be many roles for health deal out administrators be aim of the wide variety of possible settings they can take part in. I soon work for Catholic health care West (CHW), a Health Care Organization (HCO), St. Josephs Hospital and aesculapian Center (SJHMC) in Phoenix, AZ as a Senior purchaser in the Materials Management Department. CHW is a Catholic non-profit public healthcare effort consisting of over forty networks of clinics and hospitals delivering medical services in Arizona, California, and Nevada with 60,000 fork outrs, clinicians and non-clinical support staff. Health care administrators in CHW are employed at all levels, top, middle, and entry.SJHMC currently has two medical management committees, Critical Care Committee and assay Management Committee that play a major role in administration for their health care system. The critical care commi ttee evaluates the sample of critical care practice for various intensive care and hint units in the hospital. This committee supports the continuous improvement of tolerant role care at SJHMC through the ongoing and foc engaged monitoring of key quality indicators. And the peril Management Committee directs the design and implementation of all attempt dodging and management policies, procedures, processes and improvements, related to the following risk reduction activities, risk surveillance, risk prevention, risk control, and unusual occurrences. Identifying and analyzing key risk indicators at least quarterly avoids trends in patient injury out hails and improves provider practice. They reach conclusions and take execution for quality improvement to achieve greater success. There are early(a) methods that these medical management committees can persuade the health care constitution outside of the walls of their HCO. At SJHMC they collaborate with new(prenominal) commu nity HCO to bring effectiveness in numbers so their voice is heard. They create an environment that benefits the replete(p) state with initiatives. They are also known to seek out implicated third parties in the private sector to help donate to their cause in health care reform. In addition, the administration that is involved in these committees that are outside of their additional duties lead and actively participate in interdisciplinary quality improvement activities as a key indorser to the image and care SJHMC provides to the community. These committees exist to manage the quality and base hit of patient care delivery. SJHMC depends on these administrative leaders to serve on these committees to provide leadership for measuring, assessing, and improving processes. Managed care organizations roles and the future of health insuranceManaged care organizations play a major role in health care management and technology as well as universe the future for health insurance. They are the middle man surrounded by the insurance agencies and the administration communicating the needs of the patient and the managed care organization. I feel that managed care organizations would be very beneficial in a way that it forget be able to benefit not only myself but other people also. For example, managed care has helped to aid me whenever I am going to the hospital or getting a doctor check up. They are the ones that are talking with my doctors or physicians in order to determine the type of preaching I may need and handle all of the financial agreements that arrive with it I feel that this would save myself and others time and money by having a managed care plan. In the national and state levels they are involved in the legislative process to advocate for new health policies for health insurance. inside(a) the courthouse they litigate within advocacy campaigns from the private sector for health care reform as well. As the number of Americans without health care insurance continues to grow the need for access to health care grows as well. Expanding health insurance and creating access to health care for every American has come in the form of MCOs building public and political alliances for reform that impart expand health insurance through tax credits. They also incite insurance agencies to move in the direction of a system that entrust make health insurance affordable for individuals and families. The future of health care insurance is especially important to SJHMC. Being CHW is a nonprofit organization with religious sponsorship they have provided over $900 million community benefit and put out health care to the poor and low income families in 2008.The role of administration in health systemsHealth care organizations use Information engineering science in order to improve the quality, safety, effectiveness and efficiency of health care in different settings and in order to insure continuity of care. The use of IT in health care has been demonstrated to improve health care in various large health care delivery systems.IT enthronisation must(prenominal) be aligned with the health care organizations mission and vision. In order to better understand any proposed technological investments by the different stakeholders in the organization it is important for the IT department to come up with a Strategic Master Plan to assess the IT infrastructure and services forthcoming including hardware, applications, manpower and processes in order to identify future needs.The role of administration in health systemsIn healthcare settings, IT infrastructure constitutes the physical hardware used for running medical and profession applications including networked medical instruments, enterprise storehouse systems, servers, desktops, laptops and hand-held devices, interfaces together with wired and wireless network devices and connection media. deuce years ago the IT department in the hospital I work for went through a drama tic enhancement of the service delivery and IT infrastructure, establishing submission requirement with the Joint Commission International Accreditation and the College of American Pathologists, initiating mega projects to improve cardinal infrastructure including the network, desktop reckoners, printers laptops, servers, enterprise data storage as well as restructuring the data center to cover the hospital expansion and affix safety and security of the IT resources.The major two projects that were approved and implemented wereMy Care-Cerner interface, it facilitates ADT (admission, over bleed and transfer) and Physician Orders between the two systems. ADT tuition is transferred via hospital network and stored in centralized database. The interface allows the caregiver to enter patient information into the computer where ADT reads messages in HL7 format and updates the appropriate tables in the database. Transactions such as data added, updated, cancelled or deleted are done i n real time and ADT Interface Server receives a massage and updates the database for use justifiedly away.Some of the benefits of my-CARE-Cerner ADT InterfaceSaves Time patient information in the patient master index of cerner and then transmitted automatically to my CARE without re-entry of the information in my CARE.Reduction of Data Entry Errors there is less adventure of data entry errors with less data being entered manually in my-CARE.Complete Patient Information information is available without having to search in other systems.ICIS-CERNER Phase II Project a major work out upgrade to the underlying infrastructure was made in order to piece for phase II. Phase II Cerner which included the following modules includes PharmNet which organizes data, eliminates duplication, and increases patient safety and communication among caregivers, physicians, and nurses by placing data only once ensuring efficiency, and safety, SurginNet which offers solutions to doctors, nurses, surgery aggroup members such as scheduling, comprehensive reporting, complete documentation for pre, intra, post operative, flake tracking, anesthesia documentation and tools necessary to automate the practice of anesthesia and compose which provides the ability to support paper, document images and computerized records within a single application, graph completion, release of information and chart tracking. Other modules include CareNet which links patient electronic medical record to nursing activities, automatically documenting activities and simplifying communication between all members of the care team and FirstNet which was introduced for emergency services and helps track the flow of patients at emergency departments until the patient is transferred to the ward or discharged, including triaging stage.ConclusionIn closing, the healthcare environment is not as easy as it seems. With all the new technological inventions and advancement in medicines and study, many healthcare physici ans must be ready at all times to adapt to any new changes when it involves the healthcare field. One of the major things some on-demand is that it helps a business become not just more innovative, but also some(prenominal) more efficient and much more responsive to change (Wladawsky-Berger, pg 1). With this being said, the importance of anyone working in a healthcare industry is tag by their adaptation to change and if they adapt to change quickly, more patients will be satisfied with the service and that those physicians will be able to delineate problems that occur inside their place of work. This is why roles in healthcare are important in todays world because the future holds many changes in the healthcare field and that administrators must be ready for change and must be ready to try to obtain as much information about new medicines and cures whenever the time comes.ResourcesShi, L., Singh, D. A. (2008) Delivering health care in America A systems approach (4th ed.). Bosto n Jones and Bartlett.Longest, Jr., B. B. (2003). Managing health services organizations and systems. Baltimore Health Professionals Press.David Brown, In the isotropy Some Candidates Disagree, but Studies Show Its Often Cheaper To Let People total Sick, The Washington Post, April 8, 2008.Saward, E., Sorensen, A. (1980). The current emphasis on preventive medicine. In S. J. Williams (Ed.), Issues in health services (pp. 17-29). New York John Wiley Sons.

Inter professional Team Working Risk Management Resuscitation department

Inter master copy Team Working Risk Management Resuscitation de breakmentThis assignment accentes on squadwork and the anxiety of perseverings requiring tweak interposition. In considerablyness address, groupwork or inter-professional coaction is an native comp sensationnt of reliablety. As break computable deals in legal philosophy squadwork faeces head for the h vertiginouss to poor long-suffering safety, I aim to minutely evaluate and gather up the importance of inter-professional col laboratoryoration in the resuscitation department. utilization scenarios of uncomplainings that were brought into the resuscitation department requiring immediate c ar focusing allow for illustrate different group approaches to works, barriers to effective squad workss, and leadinghip of groups. The recurrence ups map in the maintaining persevering safety via risk precaution strategies go out in like manner be explored. This is important because the resuscitation department is a immobile paced milieu potentially vulnerable to risks. I intend to conclude how for from for each one one one scenario was managed and from these, draw up recommendations for streamlined care for accusation and inter-professional police squad on the job(p)(a) in a resuscitation department. A reference list is accommodated.IntroductionIn the Accident and apprehension (AE) department, a key function is to receive asses and treat injured or sick multitude quickly at any time of the twenty-four hours or night. Anything hindquarters appear in an AE department from perseverings with cuts, sprains and limb fractures, to tolerants with more(prenominal) serious life threatening conditions such as cardiovascular emergencies, gastrointestinal problems, neurovascular emergencies and combat injurytic injuries. Due to the nature of work in this environment, nursing make fall out and management often occurs as a rapid sequence of events commencing with the cite of life-threatening call for (Etherington 2003). endurings calculateing AE are seen immediately and at that beat pauperisationinesss for treatment assessed. This initial assessment is a process kat oncen as triage intentional to allocate clinical priority (See appendix). The Man boober triage group set up in 1994 is the most widely apply triage method in the UK. The placement selects patients with the graduate(prenominal)est priority start-off and works with amount to the fore do any assumptions about diagnosis. This is debate as AE departments are largely driven by patients presenting with signs and symptoms (Mackaway-Jones 1997).Once patients are triaged they are categorised according to a scale of urgency. The triage scale is chroma coded for character patients requiring immediate resuscitation and treatment are coded red, and would normally be met by a group standing by after prior recounting by the ambulance expediency (Crouch and Marrow 1996). People p resenting with serious injury or illness pick up a skilled aggroup who follow accepted life keep behind protocols indoors hold roles (Etherington 2003).This assignment will focus on red coded patients brought into a resuscitation department requiring immediate awe management for the preservation of life. Effective management of these patients is pivotal in trim back mortality order and a skilled squad is of great importance. In health foreboding, squadwork or inter-professional collaboration is an essential component of safety. look into suggests that cleansement in patient safety raft be make by mechanical drawing on the science of aggroup metier (Salas, Rosen and king 2007). However, literature regarding fatality squads suggests that human factors such as confabulation and inter-professional sexual inter physical bodyships, earth-closet affect a aggroups performance regardless of how clinically skilled the team members are (Cole Crichton 2006, lynch and Cole 2006). Ineffective teamwork can lead to errors in diagnosis and treatment (Salas, Rosen and king 2007) and is apparent in the umteen a nonher(prenominal) accusations of poor caution and forgetful communication observable in mal dress lawsuits (Groff 2003).As breakdowns in teamwork can lead to poor patient safety, I aim to critically evaluate and defend the importance of inter-professional collaboration in the resuscitation department. Example scenarios of patients that were brought into the resuscitation department requiring immediate mission management will illustrate different team approaches to working, barriers to effective team working, and leadership of teams. The nannys role in the maintaining patient safety via risk management strategies will also be explored. This is important because the resuscitation department is a fast paced environment potentially vulnerable to risks. I intend to conclude how each scenario was managed and from these, draw up recommendation s for streamlined nursing care and inter-professional team working in a resuscitation department.Throughout this essay, I will adhere to confidentiality as stated in the Nursing Midwifery Councils Code (2008) and no identities regarding the patients or the trust shall be named. I ac acquaintance that some reference sources used in this assignment are dated, however they are still comm simply cited in much up-to-date literature.The resuscitation dwell and the nurses roleThe resuscitation way is designed for the assessment and treatment of patients whose injury or illness is life-threatening (Etherington 2003). Anything can emerge with little precedent (Walsh and Kent 2000) however, departments often receive prior warning of a patients arrival which allows the preparation of the resuscitation domain of a function and the team (Etherington 2003). All team members should be appropriately hustling to care for the patient in a governing bodyatic manner. AE nurses are decisive compo nents of the team (Hadfield-Law 2000) because they are usually among the premier team members to meet patients and typically remain with them throughout their stay within the department (OMahoney 2005).A nurse with advanced life reward (ALS) entertaining is scoop placed to care for patients in the resuscitation room (Etherington 2003). This is where their training can be best utilized and this assists the inter-professional team to institutionalise mutual working skills modelled on examined base protocols (DH 2005).Successful resuscitation depends on a itemize of factors, many of which can be influenced by AE nurses such as the environment and the equipment. Patient (2007) highlights various elements of AE nurses role in the preparation for patient arrival. This would include preparing the noesis domain, having equipment in ready and working order and having a team on stand by. These tasks to a lower placeline the risk management strategies have-to doe with in maintaini ng a safe environment such as checking and cleaning ein truththing on a rhythmic basis (Etherington 2003), a practice which I observed is routinely carried amidst patient occupancy. The importance of carrying out such checks contributes to teams being prepared with equipment ready and working to treat patients safely.Once the patient has arrived, other roles and tasks the AE nurse might undertake include maintaining a patients airway, patient assessment, taking vital observations, monitoring endovenous therapy, managing wound care, pain management, keeping rubbish open(a) to maintain a safe working environment, catheterisation, and communication and liaison between patients, relatives and the inter-professional team (Patient 2007, Etherington 2003). McCloskey et al., (1996) cited in Drach-Zahavy and Dagan (2002) describe this linking role of nursing as gumwood function as it is nurses who maintain the holistic everywhereview of the care given to the patient by all members of th e inter-professional team.From the literature (Patient 2007, Etherington 2003, McCloskey et al., 1996), it is evident that nurses working in the resuscitation area must be able to integrate with the inter-professional team and non only maintain the safety of the patient, but also everyone working in that environment. It is the nurses righteousness to manage the resuscitation room which incorporates preparing the environment and ensuring equipment is in working order.Investigation into the resuscitation room and the nurses role within that area has highlighted that nurses have many important management roles to carry out. For the purpose of this assignment, focus will be upon the nurse working as part of the inter-professional team, and the risk management strategies that take place to support that team.I had the opportunity to observe how inter-professional teams worked together to benefit the patient and envision safety. Two examples of patients brought into the resuscitation department within the same week will now illustrate different team approaches to care management.Example 11000 Saturday morning, the department receives a call from ambulance hold in warning that they have a patient with cardiac arrest on the way in skillful about ten minutes. Immediately the lead nurse of the fate brake department informs the dickens nurses managing the resuscitation department of the patient en route. The Nurses put a call out to the emergency inter-professional team to stand by and prepared the area by having the defibrillator in position, the oxygen mask ready and the adrenaline at impart.The emergency inter-professional team start flooding into the area and in that location is a mixed bag of bodies standing around in rubber gloves and aprons. The team consisted of three nurses, an anaesthetist, a physicians assistant, dickens junior medical students, two nursing students, a fipple pipe, and a consultant equating 11 people.The ambulance man arrived a nd they rushed the patient in promptly transferring her over from stretcher to trolley. The paramedic commenced a detailed handover to the team. The patient was a 69 year old woman who was give unconscious mind and not breathing at a holiday camp. The ambulance crew had been doing cardiac pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for 45 minutes from scene to hospital. The patient was still not breathing. During the time of this handover, it was observed by the nurse that there was a goldbrick hesitancy between continuity of CPR. After the ambulance crew transferred the woman over to the trolley, no one took the lead of directing the team or chronic CPR. After this brief hesitancy a nurse took the lead by suggesting someone start CPR. Another nurse then stepped forward and commenced chest compressions whilst the anaesthetist placed a bag and mask over the patients airway. The team crowded around and the consultant stepped forward and started making orders loudly in relation to current advance d resuscitation considerlines.The defibrillator was attached and the team was advised by the nurse operating it to stand clear. Shocks were delivered without success. The team took it in turn to do chest compressions for fifteen minutes whilst other members gathered around obtaining intravenous access. The consultant then suggested that they stop. The team stood back and started to disperse out of the resuscitation room leaving the nurses to continue care and management of the patient and her family. The patient was disconnected from the defibrillator and a nurse cleaned the resuscitation area.Example 2At 0230 ambulance control report that they have a patient aimd in a road traffic collision (RTC) on route due in approximately twenty minutes. The lead nurse informs the two nurses running the resuscitation area who then inform the inter-professional team to stand by. The resuscitation area is prepared and a team of seven including two nurses, a registrar, an anaesthetist, a physic ians assistant, an orthopaedic doctor, and a nursing student await the patients arrival. The team pre-decided on who is to do what tasks.The ambulance crew arrive with the patient on a spinal board. The crew hand over the patient, a 42 year old male who was inebriated with alcohol and overdosed on analgesics, had been involved in a high-speed constabulary chase and sped off the road overturning his car and going through the windscreen. The patient had recently discovered that his wife was having an affair and this was the suspected cause of his actions. The police awaited outside the resuscitation department.The patient was semi conscious maintaining his own airway. The registrar took the medical lead advising calmly who to do what. The anaesthetist took the management of the airway, a nurse provided comfort and reassurance to the patient whist taking observations. Another nurse cut the patients clothes off him and covered him with sheets.The protocol used for patients involved in trauma is the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) system (American College of Surgeons 1997) which is a widely haveed management plan for trauma victims. sign assessment consists of preparation, a capital survey, resuscitation, secondary survey and definitive care phase which is the ongoing management of trauma. Because the ATLS involves medical and nursing module, they encourage inter-professional learning. This occurs when two or more professions learn with, from and about each other to improve collaboration and the fictitious character of care (DH 2007). Most AE departments use the ATLS protocols (Etherington 2003) as this system of managing the severely injured has now make out part of best practice (Royal College of Surgeons 2000).The registrar and the nurses all appeared highly familiar with ATLS protocol and a primary survey, secondary survey followed by definitive care phase was carried out systemically and smoothly. The team pass judgment each others actions and care management giveed in the patient being able to maintain his own airway, breathing and circulation.Other team members that became involved in the care management of this patient include the radiographer, lab technicians and the police. The nurses liaised with all these people and acted as a mediator of communication between the team. This reinforces Drach-Zahavy and Dagans (2002) concept of glue function as it is nurses who maintain the holistic overview of the care given to the patient by all members of the inter-professional team.It is worth noting that these examples are relatively different in relation to the time of day they occurred, the teams that attended, and the age and demo of the patients. These factors will be taken into consideration during discussion of the two examples.Inter-professional team workingNurses are obliged to adhere to the NMC Code which in relation to team working, clearly states that nurses must work effectively as part of a team and respect the skil ls, expertise and contributions of colleagues (NMC 2008). The importance of inter-professional working has been emphasised in a succession of government white papers addressing care (Hewison 2004) which call for more team working, extended roles for professionals and the removal of hindrances to collaboration (DH 2000a/b, 2004, 2005).During a critical care emergency, effective teamwork, prioritising and speed of care delivery whitethorn mean the difference between life and death (Denton and Giddins 2009). National Patient re pattern Agency (NPSA 2008) and National Institute for Health and Clinical goodness (NICE 2007) agree that health care professionals are required to be able to respond appropriately in emergency situations. This entails an up-to-date knowledge of current manifest-based resuscitation guidelines (Resuscitation Council 2005, 2006) and the need for a team approach to care management of acutely ill individuals (Denton and Giddins 2009).An exploration of inter-prof essional team working in a resuscitation area will now follow, using the above examples to appraise the importance of inter-professional collaboration. Teams and team dominance will be discussed as this is essential in identifying the mechanisms of teamwork involved in patient management and safety (Salas, Rosen and poof 2007).The DH (2005) recognise that outcomes of health care services are a product of teamwork and, the use of the word team is a broad spectrum term aimed to include all healthcare professionals working inter-professionally. Mohrman et al., (1995) definition includes individuals who work together to deliver services for which they are reciprocally accountable and, integrating with one another is included among the responsibilities of each member. Leathard (1994) depicts inter-professional practice to refer to people with distinct disciplinary training, working together making different yet complementary contributions to patient focused care. The philosophy of care in the local AE department incorporates these definitions stating professionals aim to promote team life story with support to each other and encourage relations with other disciplines (Trust AE nursing philosophy 2008).Salas, Rosen and King (2007) suggest effective teams have several ridiculous characteristics including a dynamic social interaction with significant interdependencies, a trenchant lifespan, a distributed expertise, clearly assigned roles and responsibilities, and shared common land set and beliefs (Wiles and Robinson 1994). These characteristics require goal directedness, communication and flexibility between members (Webster 2002).From these definitions, it is apparent that in healthcare a common and vital feature in teamwork is shared values and goals (Salas, Rosen and King 2007, Wiles and Robinson 1994). This serves as the teams focus point and appears to be at the flower of what members strive towards. In example 1, shared values and goals are evident in t he ALS protocols that the team followed. However, individuals roles were not clearly recognised and the team did not seem to be familiar with one-another.In example 2, the team again demonstrated shared values and goals by following agreed protocols (ATLS). This was further demonstrated in how the team interacted with each other and anticipated one-anothers actions. Pre-agreed tasks were organised by the team and they demonstrated mutual understanding of one-anothers roles. When members of trauma teams are given pre-assigned roles, they can perform a practice cognize as plain organisation which refers to the ability of performing several interventions at the same time (Patient 2007 and Cole 2004). Taking on pre-agreed roles and responsibilities can influence patient outcomes, hold in resuscitation times and lowering mortality rates (Lomas and Goodall 1994).Salas, Rosen and King (2007) advise teams take time to develop a discipline of pre-brief where the team clarifies the goals, roles and performance strategies required. Example 2 demonstrates how, this preparation is proven to amplify performance levels when operation under stressful conditions (Inzana et al., 1996 cited in Salas, Rosen and King 2007).A team approach in resuscitation has proved highly effective in reducing mortality rates (Walsh and Kent 2000). However, evidence suggests that human factors such as poor communication and lose of understanding of team members roles can breakdown team effectiveness leadership to poor patient safety. (Xyrichis and Ream 2008, Atwal and Caldwell 2006). In relation to example 1, there were many team members present nobody knew clearly who was who. To understand what makes an effective team, barriers inter-professional teams count and what can be done to overcome these obstacles shall be explored.Barriers to Inter-professional team workingWe have established that emergency care management involves many professionals each with their own discipline, knowledge a nd skills. Due to this diversity, professionals may have limited knowledge of each others roles and so undervalue the contribution of care delivered to patients, making inter-professional team working difficult (Spry 2006). Also, the way which individuals work together depends greatly on personalities and individual compatibility (Webster 2002). If personalities clash, this is a barrier to team effectiveness. In example 2, the team were familiar with one another and had evidently worked together in many trauma care situations as they seemed to trust and respect each other. This team were on their 3rd consecutive night shift working together wherefore they had built a rapport with each other.Similarly in Cole and Crichtons (2006) get wind exploring the finishing of a trauma team in relation to influencing human factors, many respondents described an amity and familiarity. They argued that teams work when people know their roles, have the required technical expertise and are well- educated about trauma. Cole and Crichton (2006) interviewed a consultant team leader who reports you can have the most gruesome scenario where you have a new working(a) SHO and a new anaesthetic SHO, no-one knows each other and its atrocious Teams made up of individuals who are familiar with each other work with great efficacy than teams composed of strangers (Guzzo and Dickson 1996 cited in Cole and Crichton 2006). This report illustrates the challenges that team strangeness poses.In Cole and Crichtons (2006) study, focused ethnography was used to explore the culture of a trauma team in a teaching hospital. umpteen ethnographic studies focus on a distinct problem amongst a small group. This method is appropriate when focussing on the meanings of individuals customs and behaviours in the environment in which they are occurring (Savage 2000). Six periods of observation of trauma teams attending trauma calls was undertaken followed by 11 semi-structured interviews with purposively chosen key personnel. Their findings are based on the trauma teams working in one hospital therefore this study is quite narrow. Cole and Crichton acknowledge that this method of study can be criticized for producing only one snapshot in time, potentially reducing its credibility. Taking these limitations into account, I believe their findings could be used to inform best practice where if the opportunity existed teams could be facilitated to practice working together. This would allow members to set out familiar with each others personalities and roles.Teams operating within an emergency medicine scope face complex, dynamic and high-stress environments (Salas, Rosen and King 2007). However Denton and Giddins (2009) suggest staff in these areas become experienced in managing emergencies, know each others roles and have genuine close team-working skills. Example 2 shows evidence to support this. Conversely, in example 1, the team seemed disjointed and nobody seemed to know each o ther. They assembled for the resuscitation but a lack of role perception hindered the teams ability to work effectively together. Research into inter-professional team working and resuscitation attempts is limited (Denton and Giddins 2009). However, a small study of cardiopulmonary resuscitation conducted in a trust hospital by Meerabeau and Page (1999) found that, although team members of a resuscitation attempt may have a common goal (to resuscitate the patient) and some of the attributes associated with effective teams, many features may not be present. These features encompass regular interaction and clear roles as their evidence concludes, CPR teams generally did not work together nor practice their skills together. These findings support Cole and Crichtons (2006) results and could be applicable to example 1 indicating that although CPR teams apt specifically to react in CPR situations, factors such as regular interaction and clear roles influence team effectiveness.If integra ted inter-professional working is to become a reality, it is fundamental that people have opportunities to work closely together to build up personal relationships and understand others roles (Hewison 2004). Professional education call for to play a vital part in supporting this (Webster 2002). The DH actively encouraged initiatives in the NHS and in higher education institutions to encourage greater role awareness amongst health professionals and support effective team working (DH 2007, 2004a, 2000b). This allows team members to devise little expectations of their team mates actions and requirements during high-stress work episodes (Salas, Rosen and King 2007). This is a logical solution but like Salas, Rosen and King (2007) note, teams come together for a discrete lifespan and depend upon who is on job and time of day. Consequently having opportunities for developing personal relationships and understanding each others roles becomes a challenge.A lack of specialist skills requi red to manage the care of critically ill patients is a potential barrier to delivering effective team care as this could escalate into inter-professional conflict. This is when nurses skills and doctors expectations of these skills differed (Tippins 2005). This barrier highlights the relevance of the ATLS training. Patient (2007) confirms that individuals who have undertaken the ATLS course claim they have gained an insight into each others roles and resultantly, can communicate with one another better (Hadfield-Law 1994).The number of staff available varies between departments and is influenced by time of day (Etherington 2003). Example 1 took place on a busy Saturday morning and the department was bustling with staff. The team that attended to the patient was large and appeared disorganised. There were 11 members to this team, 4 of which were students who were perhaps encouraged to attend and observe the situation. The team that attended the patient in example 2 was comparatively smaller and appeared more organised. In an article by Tippins (2005) exploring nurses experiences of managing critical illness in an AE department, one nurse describes how the nature of the experiences depended on the coat and dynamics of a team Because it was such a big trauma, there were so many people there, actually you feel its not managed very well because there were so many people. It was just a numeral chaotic really. This example along with example 1 demonstrates that large meter of people can make inter-professional working difficult.The ideal number of team members in a resuscitation team is uncertain (Patient 2007). Etherington (2003) reinforces that effective teamwork is possible with just 3 people present providing leadership, trust and collaboration are achieved. Relating back to example 2, leadership, trust and collaboration was evident. There was also a beefed-up awareness of roles and task distribution as opposed to example 1 where the team appeared to gather i n an unorganised fashion. These examples demonstrate that the size of a team does not reflect quality. It is influencing factors such as role perception, communication and good leadership that make an effective team.Within inter-professional teams individuals also need emotional intelligence to work effectively with colleagues and patients (Mc Callin and Bamford 2007). According to Goleman (1998), someone with high emotional intelligence is aware of emotions and how to regulate them and use this data to guide their thinking and actions (Faugier and Woolnough 2002). Self-awareness, social awareness and social skill are primordial to emotional intelligence. This is the heart of effective teamwork and influences excellence and job satisfaction (Mc Callin and Bamford 2007). The team in example 2 displayed emotional intelligence in their interactions amongst each other and the patient. For example, the registrar and the nurses ever communicated with the patient recognising his distress . Team members also displayed horizontal organization demonstrating their awareness and anticipation of one anothers roles and task allocation.Breakdown in communication has been highlighted a root cause of serious incidents (National Patient Safety Agency 2006) and trauma resuscitations are especially vulnerable. Heavy workload and constantly changing staff can inhibit communication between team members and so affect adversely patient outcomes for example medication errors or amputation of wrong limbs (Lynch and Cole 2006). Salas, Rosen and King (2007) highlight how communication often breaks down in the inherently stressful nature of responding to crises which can consequently result in clinical errors during decision making. Paradoxically, this is when communication needs to be at its finest (Haire 1998).Many examples of high-quality nursing practice in managing critically ill patients involve good communication skills between staff, patients and relatives (Tippins 2005). Good co mmunication begins and ends with self (Dickensen-Hazard and settle down 2000). This relates back to the concept of emotional intelligence and awareness where every person, peculiarly the leader, should have a clear picture of self, of what is valued and believed and how that blends with the organisation served. Overall, clear, precise and direct channels of communication need to be in place to enhance patient outcome, team functioning (Haire 1998), patient safety and quality care. leadThe concept of inter-professional team working and the barriers that hinder team effectiveness has been discussed. Now an analysis on team leadership will follow. Leadership is defined as a particular form of selected behaviour that manages team activity and develops team and individual performance (Lynch and Cole 2006). There is a strong focus on leadership within the health service as a resource for delivering quality care and treatment. This is noted in the NHS plan (DH 2000b) which states Deliver ing the plans radical change programme will require first class leaders at all levels of NHS. By having visible leaders at all levels contributes to setting high standards and amending errors efficiently. Consequently this contributes to maintaining a safe environment.A resuscitation team needs a visible leader who has the knowledge and communication skills to direct team members (Etherington 2003). In relation to example 1, there was no immediate visible leader who took the task of preparing the team. Only after did the consultant take the lead. As suggested earlier, resuscitation teams are effective when team members adopt specific, pre-agreed roles, which can be carried out simultaneously. The consultant was unable to prepare the team as he arrived only seconds prior to the patient.In the AE department, effective leadership is of prime importance due to the fast paced nature of the environment, which lends potential for staff to feel threatened by the perceived chaos. The leader needs to foster an environment where care delivery has some structure, and staff have counselor-at-law and security (Cook and Holt 2000). This role of team leader is pivotal for the effective functioning of the team (Cole and Crichton 2006).The consultant in example 1 and the registrar in example 2 were the identified team leaders. There are hardly a(prenominal) recommendations made about the education necessary to become a team leader other than experience and fourth-yearity. The Royal College of Surgeons (2000) report that the team leader should be experienced in emergency management from either an emergency, intense care or surgical specialty and have completed an ATLS course (Cole and Crichton 2006, American College of Surgeons 1997). From observation of leadership in the local resuscitation department, it appears that the most senior team member takes the lead.Etherington (2003) argues that many AE nurses perform the leader role as well as their medical colleagues. Meanwhil e, Gilligan et al., (2005) argue that in many emergency departments AE nurses do not assume a lead role in advanced resuscitation. Their study investigated whether emergency nurses with previous ALS training provided good team leadership in a simulated cardiac arrest situation concluding that, ALS trained nurses performed equally as well as ALS trained emergency Senior House Officers (SHOs). This study was conducted at five emergency departments. All participants went through the same scenario. Participants included 20 ALS trained nurses, 19 ALS trained emergency SHOs, and 18 emergency SHOs without formal ALS training. The overall mean range for doctors without ALS training was 69.5%, compared with 72.3% for ALS trained doctors and 73.7% for ALS trained nurses. The evidence drawn from Gilligan et al., (2005) suggests it may be